Climate. – The climate of Estonia is generally mild and cool, and therefore belongs to the category of temperate climates in Central Europe. Situated on the Baltic Sea, Estonia is right where the maritime climate of the North Sea is in constant struggle with the continental climate of Russia; Estonia is naturally affected by the two climatic influences, although they are attenuated by the water mass of the Baltic Sea. According to their position, the climate of the coastal regions varies from that of the interior. On the coasts the oceanic influence is more evident: the average annual temperature of the western islands is 5 °, 7, while on the west coast of the Estonian mainland the average is 4 °, 9, and that of the northern coastal regions is 4 °, 7; in the interior of the country we observe the influence of the continental climate, as shown by the average temperatures: 4 °, 5 ° in the lowest regions and 3 °, 9 ° in the highest ones. The greatest differences in temperature between maritime and continental Estonia occur mainly in winter; the January average is −3 ° on the western islands, while the thermometer drops to −7 ° in the interior regions. Consequently, the inland waters are also covered with ice for a longer time (sometimes for more than a hundred days a year) than the waters of the coast (25-50 days). The Tallinn harbor is covered in ice for only 48 days, while the Ema jõgi near Tartu remains covered for around 120 days a year. The greatest differences in temperature between maritime and continental Estonia occur mainly in winter; the January average is −3 ° on the western islands, while the thermometer drops to −7 ° in the interior regions. Consequently, the inland waters are also covered with ice for a longer time (sometimes for more than a hundred days a year) than the waters of the coast (25-50 days). The Tallinn harbor is covered in ice for only 48 days, while the Ema jõgi near Tartu remains covered for around 120 days a year. The greatest differences in temperature between maritime and continental Estonia occur mainly in winter; the January average is −3 ° on the western islands, while the thermometer drops to −7 ° in the interior regions. Consequently, the inland waters are also covered with ice for a longer time (sometimes for more than a hundred days a year) than the waters of the coast (25-50 days). The Tallinn harbor is covered in ice for only 48 days, while the Ema jõgi near Tartu remains covered for around 120 days a year. Consequently, the inland waters are also covered with ice for a longer time (sometimes for more than a hundred days a year) than the waters of the coast (25-50 days). The Tallinn harbor is covered in ice for only 48 days, while the Ema jõgi near Tartu remains covered for around 120 days a year. Consequently, the inland waters are also covered with ice for a longer time (sometimes for more than a hundred days a year) than the waters of the coast (25-50 days). The Tallinn harbor is covered in ice for only 48 days, while the Ema jõgi near Tartu remains covered for around 120 days a year.
The temperature extremes in Estonia are −36 °, 2 and 35 °, 2, figures that leave no doubt about the continental character of the climate. Rapid changes in atmospheric pressure conditions also necessarily produce very frequent changes in weather. Given the continuous struggle between oceanic and continental influences, very cold days are followed by very mild ones; and the nearby cyclone line causes seasonal changes to be sometimes sudden. Thus sometimes trumpets develop, similar to tornados, of moderate violence, which cross Estonia and Latvia. Even with respect to rainfall, the country can be divided into two zones. The northern part is less subject to precipitation than the southern part, which is higher. The annual average amounts to 533 mm.
Hydrography. – Estonia is rich in water. This character is due to the petrographic composition of the soil, which is not very permeable, to the geological structure of the country, as well as to its morphological conditions and climate. In the flattest and most calcareous region (siluric of northern Estonia), where the ground is covered only by a light veil of morainic soils, the marshy plains give the country its characteristic; on the other hand, on the irregular terrain of the sandy devonic region of southern Estonia, as a consequence of the thick morainic cover, it is the numerous lakes that give the region this characteristic. A special grace emanates from the wooded landscape of Püha järv (Holy Lake); Vagula and Tamula lakes are also well known. The largest lake in Estonia, with the exception of the Estonian part of the Peipus, is the Virts järv (Võrts järv) with an area of 275 sq. km. Also known is the Ülemiste järv (upper lake) south of Tallinn (Reval).
The river network in Estonia extends over the whole country, but the courses of the rivers are neither long nor powerful; few of them are navigable, and even those few only for short stretches or only at certain times of the year. Narva jõgi and Ema jõgi form an exception; the latter is the most important navigable artery in the country. Ema jõgi was born in the south of Püha järv, known for its legends, crosses the navigable lake of Virts, passes through a picturesque glacial valley near the city of Tartu and reaches Lake Peipus; it crosses it, changes its name and ends with that of Narva (v.), in the Gulf of Finland. Its course is 210 km. (290 including the Narva) and is almost always navigable. Among the most important rivers we still remember the Pärnu, in the western part of the country, with a course of about 150 km., navigable only at the mouth. These three rivers also show what the directions of the slopes are.
Flora and fauna. – The flora of Estonia is closely related to the soil, surface formations, hydrography and climate. The country is largely made up of wooded land (about 20%) with many swamps, ponds (about 15%) and meadows (about 24%). According to Engler, the flora of Estonia and that of the more southern neighboring countries belongs to the Sarmatic province of the region of central Europe, which the oak-type vegetation distinguishes from the area of northern European conifers. A special feature of the village are the meadows with scattered trees, a singular mix of broad-leaved plants and grassy areas, originating from the fact that the soil that is too humid would not allow the development of a real wood. In northern Estonia, on the other hand, there is a rare, incomplete, not very dense vegetation that grows on the tenuous moraine layer; Iuniperus communis L.). Grazing cattle eat the little that the soil produces, trample the petty grass, and only single highly resistant plants can survive. The relict flora of the western islands and the western coast of the country is not without interest; this comes from a warmer climatic era. Badgers (Taxus baccata L.) are very frequent, while ivy (Hedera helix L.) is found only in the western part of the Saaremaa island.
Estonia has the characteristic fauna of the forests and plains of northern Europe. For mammals, the northern noctule (Vespertilio Nilssoni), the European mole, some shrews, the wild cat, the lynx, the wolf, some marten, the otter, various voles, etc. Birds are represented by Nordic species such as cranes, lapwing, hen, various birds of prey, climbers, passerines, etc. Some reptiles including the Vipera berus, the water snake, the little worm, the viviparous lizard. Varî freshwater amphibians. Many insects and molluscs belonging to the Baltic fauna.
